Training Differences Among Athletes
Gender:
Males: Tend to develop upper body strength more easily
Females: Tend to develop lower body strength more easily
Females develop earlier, and may grow more quickly than males
Females wider pelvis = Knock kneed stance
- Wider hips places more medial stress on the knee when performing squats or landing from a jump.
Children:
Children require more safety instruction, and supervision with emphasis on form when lifting.
- Additionally, lower intensities to protect the growth plates.
Focus on all major muscle groups of the body
Prior to adolescence, children don't develop muscle as rapidly, and coordination will not be as developed, also regulation of body temperature is poor
- encourage water breaks, with hydration before and after workouts
Female athletes:
Female athlete triad: Deleterious effects of over-exercise, causing decreased estrogen levels
* Amenorrhea: Cessation of menstrual cycle over 3 month period
* Early osteoporosis: Decreased bone mineral density
* Disordered eating: Causes other 2, caused by dieting or unnatural eating patterns
Discuss and develop appropriate nutrition to prevent falling into pattern of disordered eating
Healthy body composition for females is 20%, females have more adipose tissue
Q-angle: Females have a greater Q angle because of wider pelvis leading to higher risk of knee injuries
Older adults:
PAR-Q must be done first (Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire)
- Some older individuals may not be healthy enough to perform cardiovascular exercise
Flexibility training prior to activity, key to safely exercising older population
Added emphasis on developing stability/balance to reduce the risk of falls.
Training may consist of assisting them to more easily perform ADLs
Maximal heart rate decreases
More supervision should be addressed with the individual to address body mechanics
Nutrition:
Calorie: Energy needed to raise the temp of 1g of water 1 deg Celsius
Macronutrients: Needed in large quantities
* Carbohydrates: Usually have a hydrogen to oxygen ratio of 2:1, hence the term hydrate (4 calories)
- Sugars: Simple carbs
- monosaccharides (i.e. glucose, fructose, galactose)
- disaccharides (i.e. sucrose, lactose, and maltose)
- Starches
- Fiber (no calories); helps reduce bad cholesterol, slows absorption of carbs (sol) , helps ya poop (insol)
* Fats: Supply fuel, make up cell membranes, and precursors to local signaling (9 calories)
- Eicosanoids modulate inflammation
- Fat pads/Adipose tissue provide energy stores and can protect the body and organs
- Types: Saturated (no double bonds), Unsaturated (one or more)
- Unsaturation produces kinks in fat molecules that improve fluidity and protect against cardiovascular disease
- Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids can't be made by the body and need to be consumed, to make Arachidonic acid and Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) the precursors to Eicosanoids.
- Omega-3 aka Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is important for the brain and vision.
- Arachidonic acid is found in meat, EPA and DHA can be found in seafood.
- The body stores fat in the form of Triglycerides; Intramuscular triglycerides are an important fuel during exercise.
- Too much triglyceride in the blood can create cardiovascular issues
- Cell membranes are made of hydrophobic and hydrophilic layers composed of two fatty acids
- Fatty acids are converted to energy through an aerobic process called beta-oxidation, which occurs in the mitochondria. Beta-oxidation breaks down the fatty acid two carbons at a time. In order to oxidize, oxaloacetate an intermediate from carbohydrate metabolism is required. With insufficient carbohydrate intake, these two carbon units form keto acids, which can be toxic.
* Proteins: chains of amino acids bound by peptide bonds, there are 20 amino acids (8-10 essential)
- Animals: Complete protein, Vegetarians: Need to locate 8-10 essentials in their diet
- Function: Structural, Regulatory, Enzymes and Blood Proteins, also as an energy source
- Can also be used as an energy source (4 calories); specifically leucine, isoleucine, valine
Glucose: the major energy source for energy metabolism, everything gets broken down into it
* Stored as glycogen in liver, muscle and other tissues
* Glucose through glycolysis produces pyruvate which is converted to A. Lactate or B. it enters the Kreb Cycle. The Kreb cycle produces CO2, and NADH. Oxidative phosphorylation is when energy from the oxidation of NADH drives the conversion of ADP to ATP and oxygen reacts with hydrogen to form water.
Alcohol is not a nutrient but provides (7 calories)
Micronutrients: nutrients required in small quantities, think vitamins and minerals
* Vitamins: organic molecules that are essential but can not be synthesized by the body
- divided into water-soluble or fat-soluble
- can also be co-factors in enzymatic reactions
- Dietary Reference Intake (DRI), Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) - 1/2 the population, Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) est. to meet needs of virtually all people, Adequate Intake (AI) when RDA can't be determined, Upper Limit (UI) toxic when higher
- Several B vitamins are involved in energy metabolism (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, biotin, and pantothenic acid)
- Thiamin (B-1):1.2 milligrams; Function: assists Kreb cycle, BCAA metabolism, brain function
- Deficiency: Leg atrophy, Peripheral neuropathy, cardiac hypertrophy, and edema
- Food sources: Whole grains, Yeast
- Riboflavin (B-2): 1.3 mg; Function: enzyme cofactor, carb, protein, lipid metabolism
- Deficiency: Cheilosis, Glossitis, Reduced blood cell count; Non-toxic
- Food sources: Meat/Dairy, Leafy vegetables
- Niacin (B-3): 16 m; Function: Helps synthesize NADH
- Deficiency: Pellagra: skin lesions, GI lesions, Anemia, Anxiety, Depression, Fatigue
- Food sources: Meat, Whole grains
- Pyridoxine (B-6): 1.3 mg; Function: protein metabolism, biosynthesis of neurotransmitters, helps release glucose from glycogen, involved in phospholipid synthesis, modulates steroid hormone
- Deficiency: Weakness, Neuropathy, Cheilosis, Glossitis, Somatitis, Sleeplessness, Immunity
- Source: Meat, Whole grains, Vegetables, Nuts
- Biotin (B-7): 30 micrograms; Function: Gluconeogenesis, Supplies Oxaloacetate to Krebs cycle, Synthesis of fatty acid, oxidation of odd-number chain fatty acids, leucine degradation, regulates glycolysis
- Deficiency: Egg whites bind it, Rare; Non-toxic
- Sources: Yeast, Milk, Liver, Egg yolks, Vegetables, Intestinal microfloral synthesis
- Pantothenic Acid (B-5): 5 mg; Function: Energy metabolism
- Sources: Meat, Mushrooms, Avocado, Broccoli, Whole grains
- Folate/Folic Acid: 400 micrograms; Function: single-carbon metabolism, metabolism of amino acid methionine and of nucleotides the building blocks of DNA
- Mild: Increased cancer risk, Elevated blood homocysteine, NTD in embryos
- Severe: Megaloblastic anemia, weakness, depression, neuropathy, skin lesion, poor growth, malabsorption, diarrhea all due to DNA issues
- Sources: Liver, Leafy vegetables, Beans, Eggs
- Cobalamine (B-12): 2.4 micrograms; Function: degradation of propionate from degradation of odd-number chain fatty acids, degradation of leucine, methylation of homocysteine-producing methionine and recycling folate
- Deficiency: elevated blood homocysteine, megaloblastic anemia, peripheral neuropathy, vegetarians more likely to get deficiency here
- Sources: Meat, Liver, Fish, Milk, Eggs, Fermented foods, Mushrooms
- Vitamin C: Antioxidant, also a co-factor in collagen synthesis
- 90 micrograms RDA
- Additional function: Drug, Steroid, Histamine and Tyrosine Metabolism, Fatty-acid desaturation
- Deficiency: Scurvy, Fatigue, Anorexia, Weakness, Infections; Toxicity: GI, Diarrhea
- Source: Fruits/Vegetables
- Vitamin A & D: Function as Hormones regulating genes and also assist with vision and bone formation.
- Vitamin A: 900 micrograms; Function: vision, differention of skin cells/maintenance, reproduction, embryonic development, bone metabolism, hematopoiesis, immunity
- Deficiency: Ocular lesions, night blindness, keratinization of skin, increased cancer risk
- Toxicity: Dry lips/skin, scaling, hair loss, fragile nails, headache, nausea, vomiting, bone abnormalities, liver disease
- Sources: meat, fish, eggs, milk, oils, yellow vegetables, green vegetables
- Vitamin D: 15 micrograms; Function: regulator of calcium/phosphate homeostasis, bone metabolism, Calcium absorption, regulates genes, cell differentiation, fatty acid composition, muscular function
- Deficiency: bone/systemic disease in children (Rickets), Osteomalacia in adults
- Sources: Sunlight
- Betacarotine: Precursor to Vitamin A, weak antioxidant
- Vitamin E: Antioxidant
- 15 micrograms; Function: Antioxidant, Protects membrane lipids
- Deficiency: Anorexia, Myopathies
- Sources: Vegetable oils, Seeds, Nuts, Avocados
- Vitamin K: 120 micrograms; Blood Clotting, and Bone formation
- Sources: Leafy vegetables, Synthesis in the gut
Minerals: Maintain the proper pH and fluid levels/pressure of the blood.
Macrominerals: Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Magnesium, Sodium, Chloride, Sulfur
- Sodium and Potassium:Responsible for transmitting electrical signals across nerve and muscle membranes
- Sodium: 1.5 g; Function: electrolyte balance, nerve conduction, muscle contraction, absorption of glucose, amino acid formation, pH balance
- Insufficiency: Fluid loss, fatigue, cramps, headache, dizziness, death!
- Toxicity: uncommon unless low fluid intake levels: increased risk of hypertension
- Sources: Salt, Soy sauce, Sports drinks, Processed foods
- Potassium: 4.7 g; Function electrolyte balance, pH balance, nerve conduction, muscle contraction, enzymes, proteins synthesis, insulin secretion
- Insufficiency: Weakness, Anorexia, Nausea, Cardiac arrhythmia, Glucose intolerance, Renal impairment
- Toxicity: renal impairment, hyperexcitability
- Sources: Fruit, Vegetables, Meat, Milk
- Calcium: 1 g; bones and teeth, messenger, co-factor for enzymes
- Insufficiency: Rickets, Reduced bone mass, Osteoporosis, Colon cancer, Kidney Stones
- Toxicity: Reduce absorption of iron, zinc, magnesium
- Sources: Dairy, Leafy vegetables, Fortified foods.
- Calcium and phosphorus mineralize the skeleton
- Phosphorus: 700 mg; Function: bones/teeth, DNA/RNA, energy compounds, membranes, enzymes, phosphoproteins, pH balance
- Insufficiency: Only with excessive antacids; rickets/osteomalacia
- Sources: Meat, Dairy, Eggs
- Phosphorus is a component of the phospholipid cell membranes, and regulate enzymes
- Magnesium activates enzymes and proper functioning of many signal proteins in membranes for bones
- Magnesium:400 mg; Function: Bone, Enzyme activation, ATP, affects membrane ion transport
- Insufficiency: Impaired bone metabolism & CA homeostasis, decreased blood CA and K, irritability, muscle spasms, possible diabetes link
- Sources: Fruits, Leafy vegetables, Whole grains, Nuts, Beans
- Chloride: 2.3 g; Function: Electrolyte balance, Makes stomach acid, Allow passage of HCO3 from red blood cells into blood plasma
- Insufficiency: Heavy sweating; Loss of appetite, fatigue, dehydration, weakness, loss of muscle control
- Sulfur: Function: part of amino acid methionine/cysteine, antioxidant glutathione, coenzyme A involved in aerobic metabolism, lipoic acid, chondroitin sulfate, mucuous, anticoagulant heparin
- Insufficiency: vegans need to take care to eat enough
- Toxicity: methionine in excess is toxic
- Sources: Eggs, meat; legumes, nuts, seeds, onions, garlic, cruciferous vegetables
Microminerals (Trace): Iron, Zinc, Copper, Iodine, Selenium, Manganese, Chromium
- Iron: 8 mg; Function: oxygen transport in blood, muscle, component in enzymes in aerobic metabolism, antioxidant protection, metabolism of amino acids
- Deficiency: Anemia, Fatigue, Sore tongue
- Toxicity: Tissue damage
- Sources: Meat, smaller amounts in nuts, seeds, leafy greens, beans
- Iodine: 150 micrograms; Function: thyroid hormone; regulates energy metabolism
- Deficiency: reduced growth, reproduction, rough skin, goiter
- Sources: iodized salt, sea vegetables, seafood, milk, eggs, strawberries
- Chromium: 35 micrograms: Improves insulin sensitivity
- Toxicity: oxidative stress, organ and DNA damage
- Sources: Shellfish, Dates, Pears, Broccoli, Whole grains, Tomatoes, Mushrooms, Meats
- Zinc: 11 mg; Function: enzymes for digestion, energy metabolism, DNA/RNA, protein synthesis, collagen processing, immunity, reproductive function
- Deficiency: growth, reproductive, anorexia, poor healing, immune disorder, mental disorders
- Toxicity: interferes with copper absorption, severe interferes with iron/copper absorption and nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
- Sources: Shellfish, Meat, Beans, Nuts, Seeds, Grains, Dairy
- Copper: 900 micrograms; Function: iron oxidation/transport, antioxidant, elastin synthesis, dopamine and dorepinephrine metabolism
- Deficiency: Anemia, Leukopenia, Neutropenia, Neuropathies
- Toxicity: extreme cases vomiting, hypotension, coma, jaundice; moderate cases zinc malabsorption
- Sources: Nuts, Seeds, Beans, Mushrooms
- Selenium: 55 micrograms; Function: antioxidant enzyme, activation of thyroid hormone
- Deficiency: Keshan disease: Necrosis of heart muscle
- Toxicity: Nausea, Nail changes, Hair loss, Diarrhea, Fatigue, Irritability
- Sources: Seafood, Nuts, Mushrooms, Beans, Seeds, Leafy greens
- Manganese: 2.3 mg; Function: formation of cartilage/bone, antioxidant, urea synthesis, cholestol synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism
- Deficiency: Poor healing, skeletal abnormalities
- Sources: Leafy vegetables, Fruits, Nuts, Grains
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